Explaining relative clauses: defining/non-defining - E5-02W

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Defining and non-defining relative clauses

So far, we have considered the following difference between two relative clauses: the one which depends on whether or not the relative clause refers to the subject (0) or the object (00) of the verb in the main clause.  

 

0        My sister now lives in Brighton. My sister has just got married.

My sister, who has just got married, now lives in Brighton

    00    I’ve just seen the director. He (i.e. the director) has offered me a new job.

 I’ve just seen the director, who has offered me a new job.

 

We now need to consider another type of difference:

A0. Lillian has a husband. He has written at least 20 books.

 Lillian has a husband who has written at least 20 books.

A00. Lilian is married to the Professor of Political Science. He has written at least 20 books.

Lilian is married to the Professor of Political Science, who has written at least 20 books.

B0. I’ve just met someone. She looks exactly like my cousin.

I’ve just met someone who looks exactly like my cousin.

B00. I’ve just met someone called Jennifer. She looks exactly like my cousin.

I’ve just met someone called Jennifer, who looks exactly like my cousin.

 

Type 0 are called defining, type 00 are non-defining relative clauses. In the first type, the relative clause completes information which is otherwise unfinished:

Lillian has a husband….

I’ve just met someone…

In the second case, we already have a definition of the husband and of ’someone’

 

As a writer of English, you need to note some differences between these two types of clause.

1)     Defining clauses must not have a comma. A comma is a sign saying: ‘pause for a moment’. In a defining relative clause, you don’t want to pause:

This is the car which I told you about on the phone.

2)     Defining relative clauses can begin with ‘that’ instead of ‘who’ or instead of ‘which’, but non-defining ones often cannot:

This is the car that I told you about on the phone. but

She introduced me to Lilian that / who is married to the Professor of Political Science.

We explore ‘that’ as a relative in a separate file

3)     Defining relative clauses are more informal and more typical of speech, and the relative pronoun can often be left out.

I can’t find the big chisel (which / that) you lent me.

She’s going out with a guy (who / that) I can’t stand.

4)     Finally, notice how defining relative clause sentences break the normal rule about a main clause being understandable as an independent unit.

Next, you need something which adds a touch of bitterness to the flavour.

Next, you need something is not a complete unit of meaning.

This problem does not apply with non-defining clauses:

Next, you need something like chicory, (which adds a touch…).

 

Using these clause types in your writing

 

It is important to remember that when we write, we do not have any of the advantages of spoken communication: intonation, pauses, facial expression, body language. We try to use bold, italics, underlining and so on for emphasis, and punctuation such as commas, semi-colons and full stops to create pauses. But written language has to be as precise as possible if it is to communicate exactly what we want to say. It is easy enough to end up writing things like

 

Jane was chased by a policeman running naked down the street.

 

This gives us an important clue about using relative clauses. Normally, the above would be a short form of Jane was chased by a policeman, who was running naked down the street. In fact, of course, the naked runner was Jane:

Jane, who was running naked down the street, was chased by a policeman.

 

This example illustrates the importance of using relative clauses correctly. They can be of great value in bringing complete clarity and lack of ambiguity to what we are trying to convey. Another example of the type of problem relative clauses are designed to solve is the one that occurred in P3-07:

My grandfather was a great friend of General Davis. He once met the prime minister of India.

As this stands, we do not know whether it was the grandfather or the General who had the honour. Rather than the clumsy bracketing of:

He (my grandfather) or He (the General),

we solve the problem with an appropriately-placed relative clause:

My grandfather, who once met the prime minister of India, was a great friend of General Davis. Or

My grandfather was a great friend of General Davis, who once met the prime minister of India.

 

Using ‘whom’:

It is becoming rare to see ‘whom’ used. It is not spoken and probably only used in writing by older people. There is, however, one very important exception to this rule: ‘whom’ must be used after prepositions, and this structure gives us another type of relative clause which is widely used in formal writing, and which – in E505W -  we therefore take a closer look at:

She is a woman for whom I have the greatest admiration.

My grandfather, with whom I spent many happy childhood days, was a singular man.

 

To conclude, the grammatical study of relative clauses and pronouns can get highly complex and involved. Such a high level of detail is no more needed by the non-native speaker of English than it is by the normal native speaker. What is valuable, however, for the student of English, is to become thoroughly familiar with the use of relatives, as they are indispensable tools of effective English, above all in writing.