Explaining conjunctions: E6-01W

Any good grammar book will have chapters on the detailed uses and rules involving the use of conjunctions. The present explanation file, intended for use with the corresponding English practice exercise [P6-01W], is a brief overview of some of the most common features of the use of certain conjunctions. (Note: The co-ordinating conjunctions ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘or’ are not featured here.)

 

Time conjunctions

 

While, as, until, as soon as, as long as, by the time, since, before, after, when

 

This list shows that we have several conjunctions designed to make clear the time relations of two actions. We will summarise them briefly below:

 

At the same time – while / as / when

As I sat waiting in the traffic jam, I sang at the top of my voice.

I solved the equation while cooking supper for the family.

I saw the ghost when I was staying at the old country inn.

 

Note, however, that ‘when’ is more usually involved in sequence: see below.

 

Before and after

I had a shower after I got dressed.  

This would involve showering with one’s clothes on. Use either:

After I had a shower, I got dressed. Or:

I had a shower, after which I got dressed. Or, of course:

I had a shower before I got dressed. See also ‘then’ below.

After and before are often used with –ing:

Before cleaning the toaster, make sure to unplug it

After having a shower, I got dressed.

 

Since (time)

Since is used when I am thinking about the time now in relation to that at which something started (had started)

I’ve been working on this exercise since 10 o’clock.

The phone hasn’t stopped ringing since an hour ago.

Students are often taught: since + present perfect. Beware that you can also use since with the past simple or past perfect

I first went to school at the age of ten. My mother had taught me at home since I was three.

I had loved books since I had first learnt to read.

 

By the time

 

This is used to indicate something which happened, or will happen after a certain amount of time has elapsed.

By the time the plane touches down in Paris, we will have been in the air for 12 hours non-stop.          [Note present tense in the first clause, future perfect in the second]

I was completely exhausted by the time we finally reached Paris.

 

Until

 

This marks the limit of duration of an action:

We stayed at the rendezvous until we were so cold we had to move or risk frostbite.

I won’t leave China until the company is firmly established.

 

As soon as

 

This indicates that one action is immediately triggered by another.

As soon as they scored the first goal, we changed our defensive formation.

 

As long as

 

This is used when one action continues for the same duration as another.

As long as the company is in its development phase, they’ll need me there in China.

Notice that this can be used in a less literal sense, in which case it means ‘provided that’

As long as it’s O.K. with you, then, I’ll be off home.

 

When

When means ‘at the time that’. It can sometimes indicate repeated actions

I often get headaches when I stay at my sister’s.

I buy organic food when (whenever) I can afford to.  

 

But more typically, sequential ones:

When the game was over, we all went for a drink.

I’ll let you know when I’ve finished the drawings.

 

 

Conditionality

 

Whether, if, unless, provided

 

Whether

 

This can be used like if

I don’t know whether / if I can trust him.

But sometimes ‘if’ is not possible:

I don’t know whether to trust him [Not if to trust him]

Whether is often coupled with ‘or not’, which cannot be done with ‘if’.

We haven’t decided whether or not to go skiing this winter.

[whether is being used as a noun clause object in these two cases: se the relevant file.]

 

Provided (that)

 

This expression pre-supposes positives. When there is no such presupposition, it can’t replace if:

Provided / providing Sally phones, we’ll know where to deliver the furniture.

If Sally phones, give her my love.

 

Unless

 

This means ‘except if’

I really enjoy winter if it’s cold and snowy.

I really enjoy winter unless it’s cold and snowy.

 

Cold and snowy conditions provide enjoyment with ‘if’ above; all other conditions except cold and snow provide it in the case of ‘unless’.

My sister isn’t going on holiday this year if / unless she finds a cheap flight.

Usually the meaning of the sentence makes clear whether ‘if’ or ‘unless’ should be used.

 

Contrast

despite, in spite of, though, although, even though, but, notwithstanding

 

Despite / in spite of

 

These are prepositions:

Despite / in spite of his reputation for being difficult, the leading actor behaved extremely well.

When used with an –ing form, they function more like conjunctions:

I passed my exams despite having worked very little.

[compare: I passed my exams, although I had worked very little.]

 

In other words, all the conjunctions in this section are used when a contrast is being made between two statements.

I like her, but I don’t love her.

 

Reason, cause, purpose.

 

Because, since, as, so, so that, in order to

 

Because, since, as, so

 

We went shopping because we needed a new cooker.

We needed a new cooker, so we went shopping.

So and because generally reverse each other. ‘Because’ gives us the reason, ‘so’ tells us the result or consequence.

‘Since’ and ‘as’ can both be used instead of ‘because’ in this meaning, and all three can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.

As / since / because we needed a new cooker, we went shopping.

 

So that, in order to

 

These indicate purpose:

We saved up for several months so that we could afford / in order to be able to afford a really good cooker.

 

So and so that:

The teacher told me to buy a grammar book, so I’m going to the bookshop this afternoon. [‘so that’ would sound wrong here.]

The teacher told me to buy a grammar book, so that I could improve my grammar.

 

‘So’ is often substituted for ‘so that’, in which case it can be placed also at the beginning of the sentence:

So (that) I could improve my grammar, the teacher told me to buy a grammar book.

But when the meaning is therefore (result), this cannot be done:

So I’m going to the bookshop this afternoon, the teacher told me to buy a grammar book.

 

Contingency

 

In case

 

This is used when precautions are being taken:

I’ll be at the office all day in case you need any further information on the new clients.

Note that the situation is future, but the tense used after in case (i.e. in the subordinate clause) is present. This of course happens with a number of other conjunctions:

I’ll tell you the rest when I see you

He’ll reduce the price if you bargain a bit.

 

Sequence

 

Then

 

Then sequences actions on the basis of 1 then 2, which makes it a possible way to deal with the sentence which caused problems earlier

I had a shower after I got dressed.

 I had a shower, then I got dressed – sequences the actions correctly. This makes it the easiest solution for low level students:

We finished class, after then we went to the beach.

 

Relative pronouns

 

Which, who and whose are all needed in this exercise (P6-01W), but these are discussed in other files and students are referred to these.